Racial tensions existed among native Filipinos, called indios; those Spaniards born in the Philippines, called insulares; those Spaniards born in Spain, called peninsulares; and those of mixed races, the Spanish and Chinese mestizos.32 Racial conflicts were carried into the church, as seen in the discrimination against native and mestizo members of the clergy. Liberal ideas acquired by mestizos influenced and inspired them to plead for and demand reforms, but because of their race, the elite created by economic wealth did not have political authority. They clamored for increased political participation, which meant participation in the affairs of the colonies. Filipino students in Spain and other countries of Europe published newspapers and leaflets asking for reform in the colonies." Among the leaders of the propaganda movement was the Philippine national hero, Jose Rizal. In his two novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, both written in Spanish, he described a cancerous society in Noli and a revolution that failed in Fili.34
The writings of propagandists influenced the beginnings of a movement toward an armed revolution. Andres Bonifacio, a warehouseman, organized the secret society that launched the revolution, but its existence was divulged to the friars.3S Rizal, meanwhile, earned the ire of the Spanish authorities for inspiring an armed struggle he himself did not condone. As a result, he was executed in 1896. The revolution was riven by factionalism, division, and ethnic rivalries. Andres Bonifacio, the father of the revolution, was even executed by other rebels for alleged treason. Emilio Aguinaldo, the emergent military leader from Cavite, consolidated his leadership in the revolutionary army. A truce ended the battles; however, even while the "Te Deum" was being sung in the Manila cathedral to celebrate the truce and even though revolutionary leaders had gone into self-exile in Hong Kong, the fighting continued between the belligerents. Both sides broke their promises. The Spaniards continued their repressive policies and did not pay full indemnity to the Filipino rebels. The rebels did not surrender all armaments and deposited the indemnity as downpayment for arms and ammunitions. During their Hong Kong exile, self-exiled leaders bought arms with the money from the armistice and unofficially communicated with American representatives in Asia.36
THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT
After the settlement of the western frontier, the United States directed its attention toward the Pacific and Asia. Commodore Matthew Perry forced the opening of Japan from its many years of seclusion and isolation. Even though they were latecomers in the scramble for colonies, the Americans conducted brisk trade in Asia, including the Philippines. The possibilities of a foothold in the rich market of Asia and a "chunk of the Chinese melon" were a welcome prospect, so the U.S. government proposed an "open door policy" for China.
As early as the 1790s, an American ship unloaded cargo in the Philippines and took back exports such as sugar, hemp, and indigo. When the Philippines was opened to international trade, U.S. commerce increased. Two businesses-Russell, Sturgis, and Company; and Peele, Hubbell, and Company-engaged in various enterprises: banking, insurance, trade, and shipping. In the 1850s, American vessels entering and leaving the port of Manila carried the highest tonnage. Between 1880 and 1889, the United States was the chief importer of Philippine products and U.S. trade accounted for "39 percent of the total annual average value of all Philippine exports, buying 59 percent of all sugar and 44 percent of all hemp exported. "" Even before the sugar quota, the Philippines had been a source for sweetening American coffee and candies.
The mysterious sinking of the ship U.S.S. Maine in the harbor of Havana, Cuba in 1898 raised American patriotic feelings and initiated the march toward the Spanish-American War. Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent imperialist and Assistant Secretary of the Navy at the time, ordered Commodore George Dewey to sail his squadron to Manila Bay. The Spanish navy under the command of Admiral Patricio Montojo neither wanted to hurt Spanish pride nor surrender without honor. In a mock battle between the decrepit Spanish armada and the American navy, the Americans proclaimed victory, and Intramuros, the Spanish "walled city" of Manila, was surrendered to the Americans. That mock battle brought to American attention the existence of the Philippine Islands." The Treaty of Paris of 1898, which concluded the Spanish-American War, ceded the Philippines, Cuba, and other Spanish colonies to the United States for $60 million.
The Filipinos, in the meantime, resumed their struggle for independence. They were already in control of areas outside Manila during the Battle of Manila Bay. Revolutionary leaders who returned from self-exile brought back arms and ammunitions. With the massive support of the populace, they scored successes in the armed struggle that culminated in the declaration of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898.